Notes to P. Kitromilides, AGreek Irredentism in Asia Minor and Cyprus.@

1. See Elie Kedoune, Nationalism, (London 1966), pp. 9-61.

2. Among older sources see Carlton J. H. Hayes, Essays on Nationalism, (New York 1933), pp. 196-244, Frederick Hertz, Nationality in History and Politics, (London 1944), pp.270-75 and Rudolp Rocker, Nationalism and Culture, (New York 1937), pp.240-56. More recent perspectives of political theory include Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, (New York 1966), pp.359-361 and John Dunn, Western Political Theory in the Face of the Future, (Cambridge 1979), pp.55-79.

3. For an eloquent critique of this view see Rocker, Nationalism and Culture, pp. 200-02, 272-73 and Dunn, Western Political Theory, pp. 65-66.

4. For the connection between nationalism and historical change see John A. Armstrong, Nations before Nationalism, (Chapel Hill 1982), while Rupert Emerson, From Empire to Nation, (Boston 1960), treats the effects of political change on the emergence of national communities. For a survey of approaches to the problem see Anthony D .Smith, Theories of Nationalism, (London 1971) and on the different historical trajectories toward the formation of 'nation - states' see idem 'State - Making and Nation-Building', in States in History, ed. by J. Hall, (Oxford 1986), pp.228-63. ;

5. See Geoff Eley, 'Nationalism and Social History', Social History Vol.6, No.I (Jan. 1981), pp.83-107 for a discussion of some pertinent sources.

6. For details see P. M. Kitromilides, 'From Coexistence to Confrontation: The Dynamics

of Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus', in Cyprus Reviewed, (Nicosia 1977), pp.35-70 and idem, The Dialectic of Intolerance: Ideological Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict, Journal of the Hellenic Diaspora, Vol.VI No.4 (Winter 1979), pp.5-30.

7. For a fuller analysis see P. M. Kitromilides, 'The Dialectic of Intolerance,' pp.5-18 and idem, 'To elliniko kratos os ethniko kentro', in Ellinismos - Ellinikotita, ed. D.G.Tsaoussis, (Athens 1983), pp. 143-64.

8. See Speros Vryonis, Jr. The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Centuries, (Berkeley 1971), pp.448-52 and for details see P. M. Kitromilides - A. Alexandris, 'Ethnic Survival, Nationalism and Forced Migration. The Historical Demography of the Greek Community in Asia Minor at the close of the Ottoman Era', Deltio Kentrou Mikrasiatikon Spoudon, Vol. V (1984-1985), pp. 9-44.

9, See e.g. V.Sphyroeras, 'Metanastefsis kai epikismi Kykiaditon is Smirnin kata tin Tourkokratian', Mikrasiatika Chronika, vol.X (1963), pp.164-99 and Kyriaki Mamoni, 'Peloponisii sti Mikra Asia', Praktika B'Diethnous Synedriou Peloponnisiakon Spoudon, Vol.3 (1981-1982), pp.209-24.

10. The ethnic origin of this population of Orthodox Turkish speakers is a disputed issue in the history of Asia Minor. The conventional view is that they constituted Byzantine Greeks who were linguistically Turkified under the pressure of the Turkish conquest. An alternative view points to the phenomenon of Christianized Turkish nomads in Byzantine Asia Minor as the possible origin of the Turcophone Orthodox communities of the Anatolian hinterland. The geographical extent and the social diversity of the phenomenon however make acceptance of both views as partial explanations of the historical provenance of the Turcophone Christians of Anatolia, perfectly legitimate. Cf. Vryonis, The Decline of Medieval Hellenism, pp.452-62.

11. See R.M.Dawkins, Modern Greek in Asia Minor, (Cambridge 1916), pp.37-38.

12. On the factors, mostly geographical, of this linguistic survival cf. George L.Huxley, 'Topics in Byzantine Historical Geography', Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Vol.82, C.No.4 (Dublin 1982), pp.89-110, esp. pp.108-110. For a general survey see R. M. Dawkins, Modem Greek in Asia Minor, p.10-37. Cf. his telling remark on p.198 concerning the impact of Turkish on these Greek dialects: 'the body has remained Greek but the soul has become Turkish'.

13. For a survey see Melpo Logotheti-Merlier, 'Ellinikes Kinotites sti sygchroni Kappadokia', Deltio Kentrou Mikrasiatikon Spoudon, vol.1 (1977), pp. 29-74.

14. Cf. Vryonis, The Decline of Medieval Hellenism, pp. l60-162, 451-52.

15. For a survey of pertinent historiographical issues see A.A.Bryer, 'The Tourkokratia in the Pontos: Some Problems and Preliminary Conclusions' in idem, The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontos, (London: Variorum Reprints, 1980), XI.

16. See Bryer, 'The Pontic Revival and the New Greece', The Empire of Trebizond and the

Pontos, XII.

17. Among the many sources of evidence see the monumental work by F. W. Hasluck, Christianity and Islam under the Sultans, (Oxford 1929), John Kingsiey Birge, The Bektashi Order of Dervishes, (London 1937), pp.215-18 and R.M.Dawkins, 'The Crypto-Christians of Turkey', Byzantion,Vol. 8 (1933), pp.247-75. See also Vryonis, The Decline of Medieval Hellenism, pp.481-96. The Centre for Asia Minor studies has collected considerable material on the subject. See D.Petropoulos - E.Andreades, I thriskeftiki loistinperipheria Akserai- Gelveri, (Athens 1971), D.Loukoupoulos-D.Petropoulos, I laiki latria ion Pharason, (Athens 1949) and K.Boura, I Bektasi Dervisides: Merikes ptyhes synyparxis metaxy Ellinon kai Tourkon sti Mikra Asia 1826-1922', Deltio Kentrou Mikrasiatikon Spoudon, Vol.3 (1982), pp.185-94.

18. For a contemporary account see S.B.Zervoudakis, 'Dianoitiki anagennisis en Kesaria tis Kappadokias', Xenophanis, Vol.1 (1896), pp.74-85.

19. Two manuscript sources in the collection of the Centre for Asia Minor Studies document vividly this process of ideological change and transvaluation of values in Cappadocia. In the 1880s Ioannis Kouyioumtzoglou, who set off from his native Cesarea in Cappadocia and visited Athens on his way to Manchester, was struck by the many differences from the customs of his native regions and the peculiar ways of doing things in the Greek kingdom. See I. Kouyioumtzoglou, Odiporiko apo tin Kesaria stin Athina, 1882-1883, Ms. No.24, (Athens: Centre for Asia Minor Studies). In contrast to Kouyioumtzoglou's puzzlement, Emmanouel Tsalikoglou in his multi-volume Aftoviographia kai istorike anamnisis, Ms. No.184, (Athens: C.A.M.S. 1957), which records his youthful experiences and recollections from early twentieth-century Cappadocia, appears militantly socialized in Greek nationalist values.

20. See Alexis Alexandria, I anaptyxi tou ethnikou pnevmatos ton Ellinon tou Pontou 1918-1922', in Studies on Venizelos and his Time, ed. O.Dimitrakopoulos and T.Veremis, (Athens 1980), pp.427-74.

21. Cf. Clifford Geertz, Ideology as a Cultural System', in Ideology and Discontent, ed. David Apter, (Glencoe, III., 1964), pp.47-76.

22. For historical details on this process see P. M. Kitromilides, 'The Dialectic of Intolerance', pp. 18-24.

23. A rich source of information on the growth of Greek education in Asia Minor is G. Chassiotis, L'instruction publique chez les Grecs depuis la prise de Constantinople par les Turcs jusqu'd nos jours, (Paris 1881) pp. 355-472. For Cyprus see L.Philippou, Ta ellinika grammata en Kypro kata tin periodon tis Tourkokratias (1571-1878), (Nicosia 1930), Vol.I, pp.119 ff. The whole process could be described theoretically in terms of the analysis proposed by Karl Deutch, Nationalism and Social Communication, (Cambridge, Mass. 1953). In this connection cf. R. Rocker, Nationalism and Culture, p,202: 'the so-called national consciousness is not born in man, but trained into him'.

24. On this aspect of the growth of nationalism cf. Kedourie, Nationalism, pp.41-50, 96-105 and Gellner, Thought and Change, pp.168-71.

25. The burgeoning literature on the subject includes K. Mamoni, 'Les Associations pour la propagation de l'instruction grecque & Constantinople (1861-1922)', Balkan Studies, Vol.16, No.1 (1975) pp. 103-12, eadem, 'Somatiaki organosi tou ellinismou sti Mikra Asia', Deltion tis lstorikis kai Ethnologikis Eterias tis Ellados, vol.26 (1983), pp.63-114 andeorfeni'Syllogi Thrakis kai Anatolikis Romilias (1878-1885)', in La derniire phase de la crise orientate et l'HelUnisme (1878-1881). Acles, (Athens 1983), pp.349~61. See also M.Kouroupou, 'Viviiographia entipon ton mikrasiatikon idrimaton kai syllogon 1846-1922', Deltio Kentrou Mikrasiatikon Spoudon, Vol.3 (1982), pp. l49-83.

26. See K.Mamoni, 'To archio tou Mikrasiatikou Syllogou Anatoli', Mnimosini, Vol.7 (1978-1979), pp. l23-50.

27. In this connection Rudolph Rocker's remarks are particularly apt: "The nation is not the cause, but the result of the state. It is the state which creates the nation, not the nation the state' and 'The nation is a purely political concept arising solely from the adherence of men to a definite state.' See Nationalism and Culture, pp.200, 272.

28. See S. Antonopoulos, Mikra Asia, (Athens 1907), esp. pp. 243-45. On the growth of the Greek consular system and the political stakes involved in the process see D. Dontas, 'Greece. The Greek Foreign Ministry', in The Times Survey of Foreign Ministries of the World, ed. Zara Steiner, (London 1982), pp.260-71, esp. 262-65.

29. Specifically concerning Cyprus, cf. Eleni Beilia, 'Ellinika proxenia is tin Tourkokratoumenin Kypron 1834-1878', and Evangelos Kofos, 1 ekhorisis tis Kyprou is tin Agglian vasi ellinikon proxenikon kai diplomatikon eggraphon', both in Proceedings of the First International Congress of Cypriot Studies, (Nicosia 1973), Vol.III, Part I, pp.245-56 and 181-195 respectively on the character of the evidence.

30. On the ideology of 'Ottomanism', see Sherif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought, (Princeton 1962). On the confrontation between Ottomanism and nationalism,

see Roderic Davison 'Nationalism as an Ottoman Problem and the Ottoman Response', in Nationalism in a non-National State. The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, eds. W.H. Haddad and W. Ochsenwold, (Columbus, Ohio, 1977), pp.25-56.

31. For the pertinent historical background see Steven Runciman, The Great Church in Captivity, (Cambridge 1968), pp-391-406.

32. On the official attitude of the Orthodox Church toward nationalism cf. the remarkable work by the Metropolitan of Sardis Maximos, The Oecumenical Patriarchate in the Orthodox Church. A Study in the History and Canons of the Church, (Thessaloniki: Patriarchal Institute for Patristic Studies, 1976), esp. pp.300-11. The author bases his argument primarily on the edict against nationalism, issued by a synod of the Orthodox patriarchs of the East at Constantinople in 1872.

33. See P. M. Kitromilides, 'To telos tis ethnarchikis paradosis', Amitos sti mnimi Photi Apostolopoulou, (Athens 1984), pp.486-507.

34. On the involvement of the Church in the cause of Greek nationalism in the early twentieth

century see the survey in E. Koslarides I sygchronos elliniki ekklisia, (Athens 1921), esp. pp. 89-118, 221-65 on the role of the Church in the promotion of nationalism in Cyprus and Asia Minor respectively.

35. For details see George Hill, A History of Cyprus, Vol.IV, (Cambridge University Press 1952), pp.577-603. See also Spyros Araouzos, A Report on the Archiepiscopal Question, (Nicosia 1908).

36. See Andreas Tyilirides, 'Archbishop Sophronios III (1865-1900) and the British', Kypriakai Spoudai, Vol.42 (1978), pp. 129-52.

37. See Adamantia Pollis, 'Colonialism and Neo-Colonialism. Determinants of Ethnic conflict in Cyprus' in Small States in the Modern World, eds. Peter Worseley and P.M.Kitromilides. Revised Edition. (Nicosia 1979). Pp. .45-79.