Richard A. Patrick, Political Geography and the Cyprus Conflict, 1964-71

Reader: only the first footnote in the text and a line at the bottom of the page of Chapter Three are linked to this page.  

1. Refer to H.S. Gibbons, 1969, pp. 2-5; H.D. Purcell, 1969, p. 324.

2. Refer to Republic of Cyprus, Cyprus: The Problem in Perspective (Nicosia: Public Information Office, 1969) pp. 9-10.

3. Refer to Office of the Vice-President, Cyprus: The Problem in Light of the Truth (Nicosia: Turkish Information Centre, 1967) pp. 21-26.

4. This account of Greek-Cypriot actions and intentions is based on confidential interviews by the author with a number of Greek-Cypriots closely involved with the events of this period.

5. Official casualty figures were supplied to the author by the Social Affairs Department of the Provisional Turkish-Cypriot Administration, the Criminal Investigations Department of the Cyprus Police, the Ministry of Interior of the Cyprus Government, and the United Nations Civilian Police Headquarters of the United Nations Force in Cyprus. Verification of these figures was undertaken by extensive field interviews throughout Cyprus, by cross-checks of newspaper accounts of incidents of this period, and by 'official' articles published by both Cypriot communities.

6. The fighting in Nicosia during December 1963 is outlined in the 21-31 December issues of the Cyprus Mall, Cyprus Bulletin, and the Special News Bulletin. Secondary sources include: H.S. Gibbons, 1969, pp. 1-130; M. Harbottle, 1970, pp. 63-68; H.D. Purcell, 1969, pp. 323-326, 331-333; H. Salim,1968, pp. 101-106; R. Stephens, 1966, pp. 181-185; C. Foley, 1964, pp. 168-171.

7. The fighting in Larnaca of 23-28 December 1963 is outlined in the Special News Bulletin, Issues 1, 2, 18, and in the Cyprus Mall, issues of 24-28 December.

8. The Incident at Mathiati is reported in the Special News Bulletin, issues 4, 6 and 25. Various accounts were also recorded during a series of local interviews.

9. The incident at Ayios Vasilios is described In the Special News Bulletin, issues 6, 19, 20, 21, 25 and 38. Secondary sources include H.S. Gibbons, 1969, pp. 114-117, 137-140; and K.D. Purcell, 1969, p. 327. To my knowledge, the incident was not reported in the Greek-Cypriot press or the Cyprus Mail. It was covered by most foreign correspondents then in Cyprus.

10. These are the reasons outlined to the author in confidential interviews by several Greek-Cypriots and by some resident foreign nationals.

11. This account is based on confidential Interviews with Greek-Cypriots involved in the incident. It is also reported in H.S. Gibbons, 1969, pp. 113-114.

12. Refer to R. Stephens, 1966, pp. 185-187; H.S. Gibbons, 1969, pp. 131-132.

13. Article 33 of the United Nations Charter states: "The parties to any dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, shall, first of all, seek a solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice."

14. Refer to R. Stephens, 1966, pp. 187-188; S. Kyriakides, 1968, pp. 146-147; H.D. Purcell, 1969, pp. 336-337.

15. Refer to Cyprus Mail, 2 January 1964, and the Special News Bulletin, issue number 8. The Cyprus Government alleged that two Greek-Cypriot monks and a novitiate were murdered by Turk-Cypriots from Kophinou. However, H.S. Gibbons (1969, p. 131) states that a few years later, "... a Greek-Cypriot newspaper stated that the murders had been committed by the staff of a rival monastery. "

16. Refer to the Cyprus Mail, 3 January 1964, and to the Special News Bulletin, issue number 26. These sources differ as to who started the fighting, but it is known that one Greek-Cypriot and one Turk-Cypriot were killed. By 2 January, this Turk-Cypriot village was deserted, looted and burned.

17. The pattern of these incidents suggests the operation of an independent EOKA-like group. It also indicates that this was one of the first areas outside of the Nicosia and Larnaca quarters where Turk-Cypriots were beginning to adopt a more militant and aggressive attitude. The Government accused the Turk-Cypriots of Souskiou of cutting telephone wires to disrupt the telephone service to nearby Greek-Cypriot villages. A gun-battle developed from this grievance on 20 January near Souskiou between the Turk-Cypriot residents of Souskiou and Greek-Cypriots from Koukiia and Ktima. Shooting stopped when British troops intervened. There were no casualties. The following day, Greek-Cypriots attacked Prastio and the small Turkish-Cypriot quarter in Kithasi. One Turk-Cypriot was killed at Prastio. All Turk- Cypriot residents of both these villages fled to Mallia. On 23 January, Turk-Cypriots allege that Greek-Cypriots shot at Turk-Cypriots in Koukiia and Phasoula. Government sources claim that on the same day Turk-Cypriots fired at Greek- Cypriot cars passing by Mandria and Koloni, and that they killed 2 Greek-Cypriots in Ktima. Refer to the Special News Bulletin, issues 28 and 30, and to the Cyprus Mail, 24 January 1964. Apart from these sources, the author's account is based on a series of interviews with village elders in this region during 1970-1971.

18. Refer to accounts in C. Foley, 1964, pp. 174-177; R. Stephens, 1966, pp. 188-189; H.D. Purcell, 1969, pp. 337- 338; H.S. Gibbons, 1969, p. 145; J.A. Stegenga, 1968, pp. 38-46; Cyprus Mail, 5 February 1964; Special News Bulletin, number 41.

19. Accounts are reported in: Special News Bulletin, nos. 41,42 Cyprus Bulletin, vol. I, no. 13; H.S. Gibbons, 1969, p. 145.

20. Accounts are reported in: Cyprus Mail, 5-6 February 1964; Cyprus Bulletin, vol. I, no. 13.

21. Accounts are reported in: Special News Bulletin, nos. 51, 52; Cyprus Mail, 15 February 1964; H.S. Gibbons, 1969, p.147.

22. The author was unable to ascertain whether the fighting in Ktima on 14 February preceded the clash in Polls on that day. If it did, reports from Ktima may well have provoked shooting in Polis. Conversely, the Polis battle may have precipitated fighting in Ktima. In any case, inter-communal

tension in Polls had been aggravated by a series of local kidnappings (e.g. at Khrisokhou on 3 February), by occasional shots fired at night, and by groups of armed Greek-Cypriots who drove through the Turk-Cypriot quarter shouting slogans and insults. The author's account is based primarily on local interviews, but these events are also mentioned in: Special News Bulletin, nos. 51, 55; Cyprus Mail, 15 February 1964; H.S. Gibbons, 1969, p. 147.

23. The villagers of both Cypriot communities in this area were engaging in goat stealing - a serious crime since all of these villages' milk, meat, and much of their cash income were derived from their goat herds. As a result, a number of inter-communal shooting Incidents in this area were motivated as much by rustling as by political and ethnic considerations.

24. Ayios Sozomenos was one of the first Turk-Cypriot villages to become involved in the inter-communal violence of December 1963. On 22 December, Greek-Cypriot policemen had ordered the villagers to hand over their shotguns, but not all guns were given up. Later that day, after news and rumours of fighting in Nicosia reached Ayios Sozomenos, the villagers barricaded the main road into their village. When a Gendarmerie patrol approached the village and drove through the roadblock, it was shot at and four of the con- stables, two Greek-Cypriots and two Turk-Cypriots, were wounded. (Special News Bulletin, no. 2) Tension was subsequently maintained in the area by Greek-Cypriot road- blocks, and by the arrest and abduction of local Turk- Cypriots. However, two specific incidents caused the most anxiety and enmity. On 30 December a Turk-Cypriot shepherd disappeared while grazing his herd near the village, and on 9 January a Turk-Cypriot villager was killed. The villagers of Ayios Sozomenos suspected that Greek-Cypriots from the neighbouring mixed village of Potamia were responsible.

25. This version Is based on local interviews and on accounts in: Special News Bulletin, nos. 43,44,108; Cyprus Mail, 7-8 February 1964; Cyprus Bulletin, vol. I, no. 10; H.S.

Gibbons, 1969, pp. 146-147.

26. On 9 February a gun battle broke out between the Turk-Cypriot and Greek-CyprIot residents of Asomatos. The cause of the shooting cannot now be impartially ascertained. Greek-Cypriots allege that Turk-Cypriots opened fire on the village's Gendarmerie station. Turk-Cypriots claim that their quarter was first fired on from that station. Following a cease-fire arranged by British troops, the Turk- Cypriots of this village moved to a larger quarter in the nearby mixed village of Episkopi. The next day (i.e. 10 February) at Episkopi, Turk-Cypriots tried to take over that village's Gendarmerie station. Greek-Cypriot police and gendarmes were dispatched from Limassol and successfully resisted the take-over attempt. A shooting battle developed in which one Greek-Cypriot was killed. It is probable that Turk-Cypriots initiated this action in response to the Asomatos incident the previous day. At the same time, the Episkopi Gendarmerie Station was in the Turkish-Cypriot quarter and the presence of armed Greek-Cypriot constables in this Station was regarded by the Turk-Cypriots as a threat to their personal safety. Refer to: Cyprus Mail, ii and 12 February 1964; Cyprus Bulletin, vol. I, nos. 12,13; Special News Bulletin, no. 89.

27. Refer to: Special News Bulletin, nos. 50, 51, 53, 59; Cyprus Mail, 12-14 February 1964; Cyprus Bulletin, vol. I, no. 13; R. Stephens, 1966, p. 189; H.D. Purcell, 1969, pp. 338-339; H.S. Gibbons, 1969, p. 147.

28. Refer to: J.A. Stegenga, 1968, pp. 46-80; United Nations Security Council, Resolution S/5575, 4 March 1964.

29. Refer to: Cyprus Bulletin, vol. I, no. 13.

30. Refer to: Cyprus Mail, 16 February 1964; Special News Bulletin, nos. 53, 59.

31. Refer to: Cyprus Mail, 1 March 1964.

32. Refer to: Special News Bulletin, nos. 72, 73; Cyprus Bulletin, vol. I, no. 24.

33. Apparently local Greek-Cypriot leaders believed that the parents of the Ktima Turkish-Cypriot military commander were in the Turk-Cypriot village of Lapithlou; in fact they had moved to Anadhiou. In any case, a large Greek-Cypriot force entered Lapithiou and held the entire population to ransom for the return of Greek-Cypriots who had been captured in Ktima. Four villagers were killed.

34. Accounts of the Ktima fighting were obtained from local interviews and from: Special News Bulletin, nos. 73-76; Cyprus Mall, 8 and 10 March 1964; Cyprus Bulletin, vol. I, no. 24; United Nations, S/5679, par. 8; C. Foley, 1964, pp. 178-179; H.D. Purcell, 1969, pp. 340-341.

35. Refer to: Special News Bulletin, nos. 74, 78, 79; Cyprus Mail, 9-11 March 1964; Cyprus Bulletin, vol. I, no. 22.

36. Refer to: H.S. Gibbons, 1969, pp. 152-153; C. Foley, 1964, pp. 180-182; R. Stephens, 1966, pp. 190-191; H.D. Purcell, 1969, pp. 341-342.

37. e.g. C. Foley, 1964, p. 182.

38. The government justified its offensive on Ghaziveran by claiming that Turk-Cypriots in the village were maintaining a roadblock across the coastal highway. This roadblock had in fact been removed under the supervision of British troops about fourteen hours before government troops launched their offensive. News of the fighting in Ghaziveran roused armed Irregulars of both communities In the nearby village of Kalokhorio to fire at each other. One Turk-Cypriot and one Greek-Cypriot were killed in this clash. Refer to: Special News Bulletin, nos. 79, 80, 85, 86; Cyprus Mail, 20 and 21 March 1964; Cyprus Bulletin, vol. I, no. 26; United Nations, S/5679, par. 8; H.S. Gibbons, 1969, p. 154.

39. Refer to: M. Harbottle, 1970; J.A. Stegenga, 1968.

40. Refer to: United Nations, S/5634, 31 March 1964 (i.e. Status of UNFICYP Agreement); United Nations, S/5653, 11 April 1964, (Secretary-General's Clarification of the UNFICYP mandate).

41. Refer to: Special News Bulletin, nos. 100-102; United Nations, S/5679, par. 10; H.S. Gibbons, 1969, p. 157; H.D. Purcell, 1969, p. 344.

42. Refer to: Special News Bulletin, nos. 108-126; Cyprus Bulletin, vol. I, no. 31; United Nations, S/5679, par. 12; C. Foley, 1964, pp. 182-183; H.S. Gibbons, p. 158; H.D. Purcell, 1969, pp. 344-345.

43. Refer to: United Nations, S/5764, pp. 7-8; H.S. Gibbons, 1969, pp. 159-160. The author's version of these events is based primarily on confidential interviews with knowledgeable third parties.

44. Cyprus Bulletin, vol. I, no. 33.

45. Refer to: United Nations, S/5764, par. 13; H.S. Gibbons, 1969, pp. 161-162; H.D. Purcell, 1969, p. 347.

46. Masey's death should be considered in relation to a renewed enmity between the Greek-Cypriot community and the British troops stationed in the two Sovereign Base Areas. On 27 May, an R.A.F. airman had been arrested by the Cyprus police on charges of transporting arms for the Turk-Cypriots. This incident sparked off anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia and Kyrenia and a series of violent criticisms in the Greek-Cypriot press about British involvement in Cyprus. On 1 June, the British High Commissioner protested of degrading and indecent searches of British nurses by Greek-Cypriots. On 3 June, the water pump at the British base of Dhekelia was blown up. By 5 June, tension was running so high between Greek-Cypriots and British troops that these troops and their families were confined to their camps and homes. Major Masey, because he was British and because he was the senior UNFICYP liaison officer to the Turk-Cypriot leadership, had for some time been a natural target for criticism from the Greek-Cypriot press.

47. Refer to H.D. Purcell, 1969, pp. 346-347.

48. United Nations, S/5950, par. 20.

49. Ibid.; United Nations, S/5764, par. 43-48.

50. General Karayannis published his memoirs in an Athens newspaper in June 1965. He stated that he resigned from the National Guard because of a personal conflict with General Grivas who regarded himself as the "self-appointed" commander of all Greek-Cypriot forces. Karayannis went on to say that Grivas himself had arbitrarily launched the Kokkina operation of August 1964. (Cyprus Mail, 24 June 1965).

51. This was stated to the author by Mr. Glafkos Clerides, President of the House of Representatives, during an interview on 20 July 1971.

52. The only 'major' military incident of this period (i.e. 14 June - 5 August) occurred at Temblos. Early in July, the new police chief of Kyrenia District announced that the Turk-Cypriot village of Temblos would be patrolled by Greek-Cypriot policemen. The village was then reinforced with

Fighters from St. Hillarion. In retaliation, the government sent a strong detachment of the National Guard into the Temblos area on 17 July and issued an ultimatum that the village would be attacked if the Fighters were not with- drawn. UNFICYP deployed troops between the sides and nego- tiated an agreement whereby the Turk-Cypriots agreed to remove their Fighters and the government agreed not to send police patrols into Temblos. (United Nations, S/5950, par. 54-57; H.S. Gibbons, 1969, pp. 162-164).

53. United Nations, S/5950, par. 23.

54. This was admitted by Mr. Osman Orek, Member for Defence in the Provisional Turkish-Cypriot Administration, In an interview with the author on 14 November 1970.

55. ibid.

56. Refer to: H.D. Purcell, 1969, pp. 346-347; Republic of Cyprus, Cyprus: The Problem in Perspective (Nicosia: Public Information Office, 1969) pp. 36-37.

57. "It dawned on the American planners that there was much to be said for the oldest way out of all: Enosis. With the disappearance of the Cyprus Republic, many other problems would also vanish. Once Turkey had been Induced to accept the union of Cyprus with Greece, trouble would end between the two NATO members. Makarios, who took aid and gave nothing in return, and who so enjoyed titillating the Russians and the Afro-Asian nations, would lose his power. An Athenian Government could be trusted to take a firm line with the communists, and the influence which America had exercised in Greece since the civil war would be extended to her newest province." (C. Foley, 1964, pp. 184-185)

58. Refer to: S. Kyriakides, 1968, pp. 158-159; H.D. Purcell, 1969, p. 350; H. Salik, 1968, pp. 146-147; Cyprus Bulletin, vol. 8, no. 4.

59. Refer to: United Nations, S/7191, par. 30, 48-52.

60. Accounts of the Tyiliria battle are contained in: United Nations, S/5950, par. 64-90; United Nations, S/5992; M. Harbottle, 1970, pp. 53-55; H.D. Purcell, 1969, pp. 350-352; H.S. Gibbons, 1969, pp. 166-173; and in the August issues of the Cyprus Mail, the Cyprus Bulletin and the Special News Bulletin.

61. The villages which Greek-Cypriots probably left because of local hostility are:

                    Name and 1960 Greek-Cypriot Population

Ambellkou 63

Aylos Sozomenos 25

Lefka 34

Mansoura 20

Yerovasa 23

Gouphes 87 (16 in 1970)

The absence of Greek-Cypriots in the following villages is probably due to urbanization or peculiarities in the census boundaries:

                Name and 1960 Greek-Cypriot Population

Temblos 61

Mari 256

Zyyi 86

Paramali 30

Kophinou 18

Ayios Merkourios 18

Only those villages with a 1960 Greek-Cypriot population of more than ten have been considered.

62. Refer to: Cyprus Government, Report by Special Parliamentary Committee Set Up to Examine the Question of Emergency Victims (Nicosia: House of Representatives, 13 April 1967).

63. Refer to: ibid; Cyprus Bulletin, vol. I, no. 24; H.D. Purcell, 1969, p. 330.

64. Under Article 2 of the 1960 Constitution, the Armenian community had voted to join the Greek-Cypriot community.

65. Turk-Cypriots evacuated the following villages in 1958 and did not return:

                Name and 1946 Turk-Cypriot Population (i.e. previous census)

Beyuk Kaimakli 56

Pano Lakatomia Turk-Cypriots settled after 1946

Analiondas and Kataliondas )) 35

Avlona 4

Psimolophou 21

Asha 136

Kondea 13

Lefkoniko 126

Peristerona 186

Ayios Seryios 82

Spathariko 25

Vassili 50

Melanagara 54

Amargeti 86

Moronero 36

Myrmikoph 13

Anarita 30

Turk-Cypriots evacuated the following villages wholly or partially in 1958 and partially returned after 1959:

Name and 1946 Turk-Cypriot Population (i.e. previous census)

Kato Lakatamia 88 (nil in 1960)

Kato Dheftera 58 (37 In 1960)

Aredhiou 86 (90 in 1960)

Morphou 179 (123 in 1960)

Dhyo Potami 16 (40 in 1960)

Ayios Epiktitos 61 (9 in 1960)

Arnadhi 87 (100 in 1960)

Ayios Theodhoros 70 (23 in 1960)

Lythrangomi 110 (105 in 1960)

Kilanemos 17 (12 in 1960)

Alethriko 57 (25 in 1960)

Anglisidhes 152 (124 in 1960)

Pissouri 30 (19 in 1960)

Kritou Marottou 25 (3 In 1960)

Prastio 67 (83 In 1960)

Lemba 145 (162 in 1960)

Akoursos 111 (126 in 1960)

Tima 175 (215 in 1960)

Between 21 December 1963 and 6 August 1964, all Turk-Cypriots left the above villages, except for Morphou (partially evacuated), Lythrangomi, Akoursos and Tima. The information on the 1958 evacuations was provided by Mr. Hussein Muzaffer Gultekin, Member of the Legislative Council of the Provisional Turkish-Cypriot Administration and Member of the Turkish-Cypriot Rehabilitation Committee, In inter- views with the author on 26 November 1970, I February 1971, and on 1 March 1971.

66. Statistics indicating the number of 'registered' Turk-Cypriot refugees in each town and village in November 1970 were supplied to the author by Mr. Shakir Klani, Director of the Office for Refugees of the Provisional Turkish-Cypriot Administration. Mr. Kiani's figures are for those Turk-Cypriots who have registered for a refugee welfare allowance (i.e. in November 1970: , , 9 per month for head of a household; , 4 per month for a wife; 1.25 per month for each child up to a maximum of five children).

67. Refer to: United Nations, S/5764, par. 91-94; S/5950, par. 177-183; S/6102, par. 45,46; and subsequent reports by the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Cyprus.

68. These figures for 1970 are based on the author's own field research in the villages concerned. 69. On 31 October 1964, a Turkish-Cypriot refugee from Palekythro, residing at Mora, was killed, allegedly by Mora's Fighter Commander, to prevent his return to Palekythro. On 6 November 1964, a shooting incident between Turk-Cypriot factions at Pitargou resulted in the wounding of several men. Apparently some Turk-Cypriots who had fled to Axylou from Pitargou returned to Pitargou, which was under government control. A group from Axylou allegedly tried to force the Turk-Cypriots In Pitargou to return to Axylou; the gun battle was the result. (United Nations, S/6102, Annex III, pp. 6-7)

70. UNFICYP faced a difficult problem over nomenclature. Because of the nature of the Cypriot conflict, and because UNFICYP had to remain impartial. It could not, for example, use the phrase 'Turkish-Cypriot Government' in reports or during negotiations. UNFICYP therefore drew up a list of terms to be used when referring to Turkish-Cypriot officials. . .

71. The description of that new geopolitical pattern which follows is based on field research during 1968 and 1970-1971. However, the pattern which existed on 10 August 1964 had not significantly altered by 1971.

72. This account is based on interviews the author had with Dr.Fazil Kuchuk on 4 July 1968 and 20 February 1971.

73. It should be noted, however, that by August 1964 very few Turkish Army officers had been posted to sub-regions. It is in fact probable that only a handful were working outside of the Nicosia enclave at this time. Once the inter-communal violence had substantially subsided (i.e. after August 1964) the central Fighter headquarters took advantage of the lull to 'smuggle' Turkish and Turkish-Cypriot officers into the outlying villages and district towns.

74. This was stated to the author in interviews with Mr. Osman Orek (Member for Defence and Foreign Affairs, Provisional Administration) on 14 November 1970, and with Mr. Rauf Denktash (President of the Turkish-Cypriot Communal Chamber and Vice-President of the Provisional Turkish-Cypriot Administration) on 3 March 1971.

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